也談關於歧視，種族歧視，Institutional racism

識字

字典說：歧視是由於對其身份或歸類的偏見和不同，區別對待某個體的成員。通常是損害對待某個體的成員的利益。[1]

道德哲學家說不利對待或想法都為歧視。這是一個對比的定義。他/她的需要因任意的原因被對待比別人差一些，都可以以實際傷害而稱受到歧視。[2]

基於現實的衝突理論，社會認同理論， Rubin&Hewstone區分了三種類型的歧視[3]：

1現實競爭是以自身利益的目的是獲取物質資源（如食物，領土，客戶）的團隊（例如，優勢團隊，以獲得更多的資源，成員）。

2由於自尊的需要，由社會競爭驅動，旨在實現積極的社會地位，社群團體與其他社群團體的互動和比較。

3為了準確測量和反映群體內部分層結構差別的Consensual discrimination。

聯合國說，“歧視行為有多種形式，所有的形式中都包含了排斥或拒絕。[4]

種族歧視racial discrimination

實際在學術領域在種族主義 racism上沒有達成共識定義。種族主義和種族歧視（Racism and racial discrimination）經常被用來指基於獨立個體，民族或文化差異的基礎上描述一個種族。[5]

例如：椰子：我的一位黑人女學生中，

我發現她不是一個一般意義的黑人，一般意義的黑人是什麼呢？就是來自較為貧苦的勞工家庭，想通過上college改變生活，找一份薪水較滿意的工作。

很含蓄的說法，但從學術上說，就是racial discrimination在言語中不自覺的流露，不過我們每個人或多或少都會犯這種錯，但在專業學術領域是不能犯這種錯的。

法律上：

According to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,

the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public lif

--  UN International Convention on the Elimination of All of Racial Discrimination, New York 7 March 1966

社會學上

一些社會學家的定義是一個系統團隊(以意識形態，或者膚色，種族為基礎)在社會的各方面運作的特權，並且發現種族歧視之間的關係和情緒困擾主要受的種族意識形態和公共信念的影響。[6]

此外還有排外主義，至上主義，隔離主義等

Institutional racism

基於種族，膚色來描述任何類型的系統的不平等。它可以發生在機構，如公共政府機構，私人商業機構（如媒體），大學（公立和私立）。[7

在美國的例子：好的信用記錄沒有保護非裔和拉丁裔借款人http://blog.creaders.net/sahara/user_blog_diary.php?did=102038

是屬於Institutional racism但不是由法律，政策造成的，類型屬於為了準確測量和反映群體內部分層結構差別的Consensual discrimination。是學術分析參考。大部分社會學者都會從事這類分析研究工作，是否正確，還待各相關學科廣泛討論，不是社會學說的算。

社會學為什麼要堅持價值中立？我想用錢鍾書的一段話來說明。

上帝 要懲罰人類，有時來一個荒年，有時來一次瘟疫或戰爭，有時產生一個道德家，抱有高尚得 一般人實現不了的理想，伴隨着和他的理想成正比例的自信心和煽動力，融合成不自覺的驕 傲。

     ----錢鍾書

[1].Discrimination is the prejudicial and/or distinguishing treatment of an individual based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or category, "in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated.

--"--discrimination, definition". Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Cambridge University. Retrieved 29 March 2013.

 [2]Moral philosophers have defined discrimination as disadvantageous treatment or consideration. This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. He or she just needs to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason.

--Kasper Lippert-Rasmussen, “Private Discrimination: A Prioritarian, Desert-Accommodating Account”, San Diego Law Review, 43, 817-856 (2006); Oscar Horta, “Discrimination in Terms of Moral Exclusion”, Theoria: Swedish Journal of Philosophy, 76, 346-364 (2010).

 [3]Based on realistic-conflict theory and social-identity theory, Rubin and Hewstone have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination:

Realistic competition is driven by self-interest and is aimed at obtaining material resources (e.g., food, territory, customers) for the in-group (e.g., favouring an in-group in order to obtain more resources for its members, including the self).

Social competition is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups (e.g., favouring an in-group in order to make it better than an out-group).

Consensual discrimination is driven by the need for accuracy[clarification needed] and reflects stable and legitimate intergroup status hierarchies (e.g., favouring a high-status in-group because it is high status).

--Sherif, M. (1967). Group conflict and co-operation. London: Routledge.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole

.Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (2004). Social identity, system justification, and social dominance: Commentary on Reicher, Jost et al., and Sidanius et al. Political Psychology, 25, 823-844.

[4]--United Nations CyberSchoolBus: What is discrimination?

 [5]--Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.

[6]Sociologists Noël A. Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as “...a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy.

--Cazenave, Noël A.; Darlene Alvarez (1999). "Defending the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course" Race and Society 2. pp. 25–50.

Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and public regard beliefs.

[7] Institutional racism describes any kind of system of inequality based on race. It can occur in institutions such as public government bodies, private business corporations (such as media outlets), and universities (public and private).-- "The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, Report of an inquiry by Sir William MacPherson of Cluny (The MacPherson Report): Chapter 6". The Stationery Office. February 1999. Retrieved 6 January 2011.