也谈关于歧视，种族歧视，Institutional racism

识字

字典说：歧视是由于对其身份或歸類的偏见和不同，区别对待某个体的成員。通常是损害对待某个体的成員的利益。[1]

道德哲学家说不利对待或想法都为歧视。这是一个对比的定义。他/她的需要因任意的原因被对待比别人差一些，都可以以实际伤害而称受到歧视。[2]

基于现实的冲突理论，社会认同理论， Rubin&Hewstone区分了三种类型的歧视[3]：

1现实竞争是以自身利益的目的是获取物质资源（如食物，领土，客户）的团队（例如，优势团队，以获得更多的资源，成员）。

2由于自尊的需要，由社会竞争驱动，旨在实现积极的社会地位，社群团体与其他社群团体的互动和比较。

3为了准确测量和反映群体内部分层结构差别的Consensual discrimination。

联合国说，“歧视行为有多种形式，所有的形式中都包含了排斥或拒绝。[4]

种族歧视racial discrimination

实际在学术领域在种族主义 racism上没有达成共识定义。种族主义和种族歧视（Racism and racial discrimination）经常被用来指基于独立个体，民族或文化差异的基础上描述一个种族。[5]

例如：椰子：我的一位黑人女学生中，

我发现她不是一个一般意义的黑人，一般意义的黑人是什么呢？就是来自较为贫苦的劳工家庭，想通过上college改变生活，找一份薪水较满意的工作。

很含蓄的说法，但从学术上说，就是racial discrimination在言语中不自觉的流露，不过我们每个人或多或少都会犯这种错，但在专业学术领域是不能犯这种错的。

法律上：

According to the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination,

the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction, or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin that has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public lif

--  UN International Convention on the Elimination of All of Racial Discrimination, New York 7 March 1966

社会学上

一些社会学家的定义是一个系统团队(以意识形态，或者肤色，种族为基础)在社会的各方面运作的特权，并且发现种族歧视之间的关系和情绪困扰主要受的种族意识形态和公共信念的影响。[6]

此外还有排外主义，至上主义，隔离主义等

Institutional racism

基于种族，肤色来描述任何类型的系统的不平等。它可以发生在机构，如公共政府机构，私人商业机构（如媒体），大学（公立和私立）。[7

在美国的例子：好的信用记录没有保护非裔和拉丁裔借款人http://blog.creaders.net/sahara/user_blog_diary.php?did=102038

是属于Institutional racism但不是由法律，政策造成的，类型属于为了准确测量和反映群体内部分层结构差别的Consensual discrimination。是学术分析参考。大部分社会学者都会从事这类分析研究工作，是否正确，还待各相关学科广泛讨论，不是社会学说的算。

社会学为什么要坚持价值中立？我想用钱锺书的一段话来说明。

上帝 要惩罚人类，有时来一个荒年，有时来一次瘟疫或战争，有时产生一个道德家，抱有高尚得 一般人实现不了的理想，伴随着和他的理想成正比例的自信心和煽动力，融合成不自觉的骄 傲。

     ----钱锺书

[1].Discrimination is the prejudicial and/or distinguishing treatment of an individual based on their actual or perceived membership in a certain group or category, "in a way that is worse than the way people are usually treated.

--"--discrimination, definition". Cambridge Dictionaries Online. Cambridge University. Retrieved 29 March 2013.

 [2]Moral philosophers have defined discrimination as disadvantageous treatment or consideration. This is a comparative definition. An individual need not be actually harmed in order to be discriminated against. He or she just needs to be treated worse than others for some arbitrary reason.

--Kasper Lippert-Rasmussen, “Private Discrimination: A Prioritarian, Desert-Accommodating Account”, San Diego Law Review, 43, 817-856 (2006); Oscar Horta, “Discrimination in Terms of Moral Exclusion”, Theoria: Swedish Journal of Philosophy, 76, 346-364 (2010).

 [3]Based on realistic-conflict theory and social-identity theory, Rubin and Hewstone have highlighted a distinction among three types of discrimination:

Realistic competition is driven by self-interest and is aimed at obtaining material resources (e.g., food, territory, customers) for the in-group (e.g., favouring an in-group in order to obtain more resources for its members, including the self).

Social competition is driven by the need for self-esteem and is aimed at achieving a positive social status for the in-group relative to comparable out-groups (e.g., favouring an in-group in order to make it better than an out-group).

Consensual discrimination is driven by the need for accuracy[clarification needed] and reflects stable and legitimate intergroup status hierarchies (e.g., favouring a high-status in-group because it is high status).

--Sherif, M. (1967). Group conflict and co-operation. London: Routledge.

Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole

.Rubin, M., & Hewstone, M. (2004). Social identity, system justification, and social dominance: Commentary on Reicher, Jost et al., and Sidanius et al. Political Psychology, 25, 823-844.

[4]--United Nations CyberSchoolBus: What is discrimination?

 [5]--Reilly, Kevin; Kaufman, Stephen; Bodino, Angela (2003). Racism : a global reader. Armonk, N.Y: M.E. Sharpe. pp. 5–6. ISBN 978-0-7656-1060-7.

[6]Sociologists Noël A. Cazenave and Darlene Alvarez Maddern define racism as “...a highly organized system of 'race'-based group privilege that operates at every level of society and is held together by a sophisticated ideology of color/'race' supremacy.

--Cazenave, Noël A.; Darlene Alvarez (1999). "Defending the White Race:White Male Faculty Opposition to a White Racism Course" Race and Society 2. pp. 25–50.

Sellers and Shelton (2003) found that a relationship between racial discrimination and emotional distress was moderated by racial ideology and public regard beliefs.

[7] Institutional racism describes any kind of system of inequality based on race. It can occur in institutions such as public government bodies, private business corporations (such as media outlets), and universities (public and private).-- "The Stephen Lawrence Inquiry, Report of an inquiry by Sir William MacPherson of Cluny (The MacPherson Report): Chapter 6". The Stationery Office. February 1999. Retrieved 6 January 2011.