我們應該如何稱呼新時代的公民? 我們如何稱呼全世界不分種族, 不分國籍, 共同 追求文明社會價值觀的人?

Grassroots (草根大眾) 這個詞在國外是個褒義詞, 美國民主黨特別喜歡用它; 但 在中文裡卻是個貶義詞, "草民", 意味着像草一樣毫無權力任人擺布.

Citizen (公民), 我覺得太文靜了, 就像 civilian (與軍事人員相對的'平民') 一樣, 沒有武裝, 不能反映 武裝維護自由民主 的理念.

National (國民), 是一個民國成立後很讓人感動的詞 (其實主要是孫中山利用民眾的反滿情緒這一民族主義特點). 所謂國民, 就是擁有國家政治權利的 民眾, 就是人人腰裡別了只槍時刻準備武裝維持民主的人們. 但這個詞同時也意味 着民族主義, 而民族主義往往是現在民族之間無意義矛盾衝突的理論基礎, 與全球 化的時代是格格不入的. 在全球化時代, 並不是以種族, 國籍劃分人群, 而是以價 值觀.

我還考慮過 Freeman (自由人) 這個詞. 它源於古羅馬的自由民. 但我感覺如果處 處都用 自由人 來稱呼人, 就太講政治了, 不隨和.

最後, 我終於找到了最理想的詞, 同志 (comrade)! 同志這個詞絕非共產特色, 其 政治意義源於法國大革命, 詳情參見以下中英文維基百科文章. 再說, 國父孫中山 也說過 "凡我同志", "同志還需努力" 這樣的用法.

Comrade
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Comrade is a term meaning "friend," "colleague," or "ally." The term originally carried a strong military connotation, and referred to a roommate.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Political use
* 2 Russian use
* 3 Chinese usage
* 4 Southern Africa
* 5 German usage
* 6 In other languages
* 7 References

[edit] Political use

The term "comrade" (and its equivalent in other languages) usually means "a fellow socialist" or "a fellow Communist".

This usage was inspired by the French Revolution. Upon abolishing the titles of nobility, and the terms monsieur and madame (literally, "milord" and "milady"), the revolutionaries employed the term citoyen(ne) (meaning "citizen") to refer to each other. The deposed King Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as Citoyen Louis Capet to emphasize his loss of privilege.

When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists began to look for an egalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". They chose "comrade" as their preferred term of address. In English, the first known use of the word with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine Justice. In French, the first use of the equivalent term, "camarade," among political leftists was in 1790.[1]

[edit] Russian use

After the Russian Revolution, the Russian version of this term (товарищ, tovarishch) was championed by the Bolsheviks. The use of "comrade" soon became widespread among Communists worldwide (much more so than among socialists who were not supporters of the Communist International).

During the Russian Civil War, the Tsarist White Russians used the word comrades (tovarishchi) as a derogatory term for their Bolshevik enemies, particularly those involved in the Red Army and the soviets. Western politicians and comedians sometimes humorously mock left-wing opponents by calling them "comrade."

Because of its use by communists, the term is now strongly associated with communism, particularly the Marxist-Leninist, Stalinist and Trotskyist varieties, and the Soviet Union. The term can be affixed to titles to add a Soviet flavor (e.g. "Comrade Colonel"). The usage is fairly flexible. For instance, one might be referred to as Comrade Lenin or Comrade Chairman, or simply as Comrade. Overuse of the word is a common characteristic of communist stereotypes on television and in films. In reality, it was employed rarely, reserved mainly for xxxxal or official settings, in largely the same way that terms like "Mister" and "Sir" are employed. The term is still widely used today by the armed forces—superior officers are normally addressed as "Comrade Colonel," "Comrade General," or the like.

Second common use of the term is simply a "friend", most often a schoolmate (as in 'he is my товарищ since high school'.)

[edit] Chinese usage

In Chinese, the translation of comrade is "同志" (Pinyin: tóng zhì), lit. meaning "(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc." It was best known for its widespread use in mainland China after the People's Republic of China was founded, for basically anyone. However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented rexxxxs, this term has been moving out of daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Communist Party of China. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member as tóng zhì is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.

At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other as Tongzhi, and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition, Tongzhi is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (i.e. Comrade Mao Zedong, comrade Deng Xiaoping etc.).

The Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) also has a long tradition of using the term comrade (同志) to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Zhang is a loyal and reliable comrade (同志)."

Due to the character "同" (meaning "same") and the fact that "同性戀" (tóng xìng lián) is the technical term corresponding to "homosexual" in English, Tongzhi has recently become a slang term meaning "gay".

[edit] Southern Africa

In South Africa, comrade is associated with the liberation struggle more generally and the African National Congress in particular. The members of unions affiliated to the ANC through their union federation use the term comrade to refer to each other. Comrade can also be a way of describing someone who is an activist, although it has an association with the ANC and the struggle against apartheid or economic inequality.

In Zimbabwe, the term is only used to people who are affiliated to the ruling part, ZANU (PF) where the state media also use Cde as short for comrade. Members of the opposition mainly the MDC are oftenly referred by their names or Mr, Mrs or Prof. This is despite the fact that the population in general is not happy with it.

[edit] German usage

In modern Germany the term Genosse is usually preferred over Kamerad by those on the political left. This is due to the association of the term with militarism as well as its use by the NSDAP during the Third Reich. Kamerad continues to be used today by those on the German far-right. Kamerad is also used in non-political situations such as within the Bundeswehr, among firemen and in schools for classmates (Klassenkamerad).

[edit] In other languages

* In Albanian, the word shok (from Latin socius) was used within communist circles.

* The Arabic word رفيق (Rafiq) (meaning friend) is used with the same political connotation as "comrade." The term is used both amongst Arab communists as well as within the Ba’ath movement. The term predates modern political usage, and is an Islamic male proper name. Iranian communists also use the exact term.

* The Armenian word for Comrade is ընկեր ("unger") for boys and men, ընկերուհի ("ungerouhi") for girls and women. This word literally translates as "friend". The term is known to be used by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation when addressing to other members of the party. The term is also used by the Armenian Communist Party.

* The Bulgarian word for Comrade is "другар" (drugar). It translates as friend or colleague. It can be applied to teachers as well.

* The Croatian term which is equivalent to Comrade is drug, drugar and drugarica for females. In the period between World War II and Tito's death, it was applied to almost everybody: teachers, officials, etc. Today it is not used commonly, but it translates as "friend".

* The Czech word for Comrade is soudruh, although the cognate kamarád is also seen. The latter translates as "friend".

* The Dutch word is kameraad. And although it can be used to refer to communists or an acquaintance, it is used in dialects to appoint someone's friend.

* The Esperanto word for Comrade is "kamarado" in the sense of a friend. The word "samideano", literally "same-thinker" is the equivalent of "Comrade" in the Communist sense.

* The Finnish word is Toveri which literally translates as "buddy".

* The Hungarian word for Comrade is elvtárs. Literally, elvtárs means "policy fellow". The term is used only for Communists - Socialists don't use it.

* The Italian word for Comrade is compagno, meaning "fellow". It is seldom used in its political meaning, as it is seen as derogatory or stereotypical. The word camerata, meaning "roommate", is the fascist equivalent.

* The Japanese word for Comrade is "同志 (dōshi)", the same word used in Chinese. The word is used to refer to like-minded persons and the usage is not necessarily limited by Communists, though the word is to some extent associated with Communism. The word should not be confused with a homonym "同士", which is a more commonly used postfix to show people sharing a certain property.

* In Korean, a good equivalent of the word would be "동무(dongmu)", literally meaning "friend". Although the word was originally used by the Korean people all over the Korean Peninsula, people living south of the 38th Parallel begin avoiding using the word after a communist regime was set up in the north. In North Korea, the word replaced all prior social titles and earned a new meaning as "a fellow man fighting for the revolution". Today, usage of the word "동무" in South Korea could attract suspicious eyes from the public, as it has been stereotyped that only communists would use the word.

* In Poland, the word is towarzysz, which is the same as the Russian word.

* In Portugal, the word is camarada, now being commonly employed to sarcastically refer to communists or supporters of the communist system (result of the overusage of the term in the post-revolutionary society). It is also prxxxxent in the army, and has been gaining popularity among nationalist movements.

* In Romanian the exact translation is camarad which does not bear a political connotation, referring mainly to wartime allies and friends. The term used during the communist era was tovarăş, which is the same as the Russian word.

* The Serbian word for Comrade is drug and is a regular word for 'friend'.

* The Slovak word for Comrade is súdruh. Slovak language also knows a term "kamarát" too, but it is normally translated as a friend.

* In Slovenia comrade is similar to the Russian translation - Tovariš, which incidentally can also mean "teacher".

* In Spain, the word is compañero / compañera ("companion"); the term camarada ("companion", "friend") has also been used, but it's more associated with the communist tradition.

The standard xxxx in Cuba is compañero / compañera, as it was in socialist Nicaragua and Chile. In some parts of Latin America, camarada is the more frequent word, except in Peru, where the term is commonly associated with Shining Path, members of social-democrat party APRA employ compañero to refer to fellow members of the party.

* In Swahili, the equivalent word is ndugu for brother-in-arms, or dada for a female comrade.

* The Swedish word is kamrat. Although it can be associated with communist lingo it may just as well be used to refer to a friend, a co-worker (arbetskamrat) or a classmate in school (klasskamrat or skolkamrat).

* The Tamil word for Comrade is Thozhare (தோழரேwinking smiley and is a regular word for 'friend'.

* The Turkish word Yoldaş (literally co-traveller) has become used within the communist movement. In the climate of harsh anticommunist repression the word largely disappeared from common usage.

* In the United Kingdom, the term "comrade" is still used as a xxxx of address among some Labour Party members, although it is much less common than xxxxerly. Used for headmasters. Wirral Grammar School for Boys

* In the United States, the word "comrade" carries a very strong connotation of being associated with Communism, Marxism-Leninism, and the Soviet Union in general. Especially during the Cold War, to address someone as "comrade" marked either the speaker, person addressed, or both as suspected communist sympathizers. It is still used in its generic context by some American socialists, even strong anti-communists. It latterly is frequently used with humorous intent.

[edit] References

1. ^ "1790, sens polit." - Larousse Dictionnaire d'Étymologie, Paris, 2001.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comrade"

Category: Soviet phraseology

同志
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同志一詞，中文的基本含義即指志同道合（特別是指在政治方面）的人，這種稱謂開始出現於19世紀末，當時的清朝光緒皇帝在籌劃戊戌變法的時候，就對變法派的大臣採用了“同志”這一稱謂，之後漸漸成為一定範圍內對人的稱謂，冠在姓氏或人名之後；1989年隨香港人林奕華的同性戀電影節——《香港同志電影節》的出現，漸漸 演變為同性戀的代稱。
目錄
[隱藏]

* 1 普遍性的稱謂
* 2 中國政黨內部稱謂
* 3 現代中國大陸的含義
* 4 同性戀群體的中文代稱
* 5 外部聯結

[編輯] 普遍性的稱謂

* 國際上，社會主義國家內部的社會生活中，“同志”一詞為人們彼此之間使 用頻率極高的稱謂。
o 中國大陸實行改革開放以前的國內政治和日常生活中，“同志”為人 們最常用的的稱謂，甚至外國人進入中國大陸也使用這一稱謂，但對犯罪服刑人員 不適用；改革開放以後漸漸少用，但年齡層次較高的人對他人多仍舊使用“同志”這 一稱謂。
* 國際政治中，社會主義國家之間、信仰共產主義或馬列主義的政黨之間的 交往，彼此人們常稱呼“同志”，但使用這一稱呼多也反映國家或政黨之間的政治立 場相同或基本一致。
o 中華人民共和國成立初期，中國共產黨對社會主義國家之間的執政黨都稱為“同志”。後來隨着社會主義陣營內部矛盾衝突，“同志”一詞被非常謹慎地使用。如中國和蘇聯的矛盾在1959年公開之前，雙方依然互稱同志，之後雖然雙方主要領導人都沒有變更，但也不再以同志相稱。對於資本主義國家，中國共產黨及其政府不使用“同志”稱呼，但極為特殊的情況下與這些國家信仰馬列主義的政黨交 往時，使用“同志”稱謂。

[編輯] 中國政黨內部稱謂

在同盟會以及以之為基礎而創立的國民黨內，“同志”一詞的使用已經比較普遍。但是“同志”在國民黨內使用的時候，更像是一個名詞而非稱謂；在使用稱謂時，依然採用“先生”、“女士”、“小姐”等，例“張先生是我們忠實可靠的同志”。中國共產黨內部的普遍稱呼，如“黨內同志”、張同志、恩來同志、毛澤東同志等等。

[編輯] 現代中國大陸的含義

中國共產黨成立之後，黨內大量地採用“同志”這一稱呼，之後漸漸稱謂習慣稱謂，在其所建立的軍隊、統治區（解放區）內廣泛使用。如毛澤東在其《為人民服務》的文章中即有“...張思德同志是為人民的利益而死的，他的死是比泰山還要重的...”。1949年隨着共產黨政權在中國大陸的建立，“同志”一詞還涵蓋到所有支持、擁護中國共產黨政權的人們。1954年民族工商業社會主義改造完成之後，“同志”一詞在中國大陸地區普及到社會各個層面，成為對所有成年人的稱呼，完也代替了“先生”和“女士”或者“小姐”的稱謂。按照當時的政治理論，中華人民共和國成立之後，尤其是民族工商業社會主義改造完成之後，全體社會成員（除了極少數的 敵特分子之外）都是在為社會主義革命而工作，自然就彼此都是同志。

政治鬥爭中，失敗的一方可能會面臨着失去“同志”資格的危險，如1981年6月27日關於建國以來黨的若干歷史問題的決議通過以前，劉少奇、彭德懷等重要人物在文化大革命以後直至平反以前一直沒有被稱為同志。中華人民共和國建國以前，由於中共黨內的路線鬥爭和其他政治鬥爭問題，在十一屆三中全會以前很少被稱為同志，如瞿秋白、李立三等。改革開放以後發生了變化，在歷次的黨內鬥爭中，失利的一方即使被認為犯了錯誤，哪怕是嚴重的錯誤，通常可以保留黨籍，儘管很少再有機會出現在官方文件中，但官方依然會稱他們為“同志”；但如果勝利的一方認為對方的性質比犯錯誤更嚴重，如反革命，則被開除黨籍，之後也不會再被稱之為 “同志”。

改革開放之後，“同志”一詞在社會上的使用面開始縮減，一般人相互稱呼不再使用這一政治意義非常濃厚的詞彙了，而是更多地使用“先生”、“女士”、“小姐”或者更顯人情味的“師傅”等等。但在政黨內、政府機構和軍隊內部的正式會議和文件中，人們依然會按照以往的方式來使用“同志”這一稱謂。除了常見的“先生”、“女士”、 “小姐”稱謂以外，在各個時期對被認為有身份的對象，特別是商界、娛樂場合，下 列稱謂出現的幾率很高：

* 1980年代，幹部、領導，常作為直接稱謂，不冠以姓氏和名字；
* 1990年代，領導，常作為直接稱謂，不冠以姓氏和名字；間或“老總”；
* 2000年代，老總，常作為直接稱謂，不冠以姓氏和名字；知悉姓氏之後， 被稱為“x總”，如“李總”“王總”等。有時對年齡較輕的女性直稱“靚姐”，對年齡較 輕的男性直稱“帥哥”。

[編輯] 同性戀群體的中文代稱

1989年，香港人林奕華將自己籌劃的首屆同性戀電影節命名為《香港同志電影節》，這可能是這層意義的開端。（最晚是）從此開始，在中國大陸之外的中文地區，如台灣、香港、新加坡、馬來西亞等，“同志”一詞逐漸演變成對同性戀者的另一個稱呼，女同志指女同性戀，男同志指男同性戀。用的時候並不是如“某某同志”這樣作稱謂用，而是“某某是一個同志”、“某某參加了一個同志團體”這樣。這種用法起先在同性戀群體中使用，後來影響逐漸擴大，上述地區的社會各界都採納了這個用法，例如台北市政府民政局就在《認識同志手冊2001年版》中寫道：“市長愛同志”。

林奕華本人曾表示：自己希望用來取代同性戀的同志一詞，是由孫中山名言“革命尚未成功，同志仍須努力”聯想而來。林一方希望指出仍然需要繼續努力，另一方面則希望將討論的焦點從性取向轉移到性別議題。此後許多關注各種不同性別議題的人士都希望能用同志一詞聯結、包含、代表更多人，目前同志一詞不僅限於同性戀者，已擴大到國際上通稱的LGBT四大族群，也就是男同性戀者（Gay）、女同性戀者（Lesbian）、雙性戀者（Bisexuality）與跨性別者（Transgender），例如 2004年台灣出版的小說彩虹陰陽蝶，副標題就是“跨性別同志的心路歷程”。並且在 這層意義之後出現如“直同志”這個詞彙。

在中國大陸，自1990年代以後由於絕大多數年輕人對他人漸漸不再使用“同志”稱 謂，“同志”作為對“同性戀”群體的代稱越來越多的人知曉和使用。

[編輯] 外部聯結

* 林奕華 EDWARD LAM: 香港同志電影節
* 台北同志一周: 林奕華談同志

來自“http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E5%BF%97”

2個分類: 稱謂 | LGBT