我们应该如何称呼新时代的公民? 我们如何称呼全世界不分种族, 不分国籍, 共同 追求文明社会价值观的人?

Grassroots (草根大众) 这个词在国外是个褒义词, 美国民主党特别喜欢用它; 但 在中文里却是个贬义词, "草民", 意味着像草一样毫无权力任人摆布.

Citizen (公民), 我觉得太文静了, 就像 civilian (与军事人员相对的'平民') 一样, 没有武装, 不能反映 武装维护自由民主 的理念.

National (国民), 是一个民国成立后很让人感动的词 (其实主要是孙中山利用民众的反满情绪这一民族主义特点). 所谓国民, 就是拥有国家政治权利的 民众, 就是人人腰里别了只枪时刻准备武装维持民主的人们. 但这个词同时也意味 着民族主义, 而民族主义往往是现在民族之间无意义矛盾冲突的理论基础, 与全球 化的时代是格格不入的. 在全球化时代, 并不是以种族, 国籍划分人群, 而是以价 值观.

我还考虑过 Freeman (自由人) 这个词. 它源于古罗马的自由民. 但我感觉如果处 处都用 自由人 来称呼人, 就太讲政治了, 不随和.

最后, 我终于找到了最理想的词, 同志 (comrade)! 同志这个词绝非共产特色, 其 政治意义源于法国大革命, 详情参见以下中英文维基百科文章. 再说, 国父孙中山 也说过 "凡我同志", "同志还需努力" 这样的用法.

Comrade
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Comrade is a term meaning "friend," "colleague," or "ally." The term originally carried a strong military connotation, and referred to a roommate.
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Political use
* 2 Russian use
* 3 Chinese usage
* 4 Southern Africa
* 5 German usage
* 6 In other languages
* 7 References

[edit] Political use

The term "comrade" (and its equivalent in other languages) usually means "a fellow socialist" or "a fellow Communist".

This usage was inspired by the French Revolution. Upon abolishing the titles of nobility, and the terms monsieur and madame (literally, "milord" and "milady"), the revolutionaries employed the term citoyen(ne) (meaning "citizen") to refer to each other. The deposed King Louis XVI, for instance, was referred to as Citoyen Louis Capet to emphasize his loss of privilege.

When the socialist movement gained momentum in the mid-19th century, socialists began to look for an egalitarian alternative to terms like "Mister", "Miss", or "Missus". They chose "comrade" as their preferred term of address. In English, the first known use of the word with this meaning was in 1884 in the socialist magazine Justice. In French, the first use of the equivalent term, "camarade," among political leftists was in 1790.[1]

[edit] Russian use

After the Russian Revolution, the Russian version of this term (товарищ, tovarishch) was championed by the Bolsheviks. The use of "comrade" soon became widespread among Communists worldwide (much more so than among socialists who were not supporters of the Communist International).

During the Russian Civil War, the Tsarist White Russians used the word comrades (tovarishchi) as a derogatory term for their Bolshevik enemies, particularly those involved in the Red Army and the soviets. Western politicians and comedians sometimes humorously mock left-wing opponents by calling them "comrade."

Because of its use by communists, the term is now strongly associated with communism, particularly the Marxist-Leninist, Stalinist and Trotskyist varieties, and the Soviet Union. The term can be affixed to titles to add a Soviet flavor (e.g. "Comrade Colonel"). The usage is fairly flexible. For instance, one might be referred to as Comrade Lenin or Comrade Chairman, or simply as Comrade. Overuse of the word is a common characteristic of communist stereotypes on television and in films. In reality, it was employed rarely, reserved mainly for xxxxal or official settings, in largely the same way that terms like "Mister" and "Sir" are employed. The term is still widely used today by the armed forces—superior officers are normally addressed as "Comrade Colonel," "Comrade General," or the like.

Second common use of the term is simply a "friend", most often a schoolmate (as in 'he is my товарищ since high school'.)

[edit] Chinese usage

In Chinese, the translation of comrade is "同志" (Pinyin: tóng zhì), lit. meaning "(people with) the same spirit, goal, ambition, etc." It was best known for its widespread use in mainland China after the People's Republic of China was founded, for basically anyone. However, after the 1980s and the onset of China's market-oriented rexxxxs, this term has been moving out of daily usage. It remains in use as a respectful term of public address among middle-aged Chinese and members of the Communist Party of China. Within the Communist Party, failure to address a fellow member as tóng zhì is seen as a subtle but unmistakable sign of disrespect and enmity.

At party or civil meetings, the usage of the term has been retained. Officials often address each other as Tongzhi, and thus the usage here is not limited to Communist Party members alone. In addition, Tongzhi is the term of preference to address any national leader when their titles are not attached (i.e. Comrade Mao Zedong, comrade Deng Xiaoping etc.).

The Kuomintang (Nationalist Party) also has a long tradition of using the term comrade (同志) to refer to its members, usually as a noun rather than a title; for example, a KMT member would say "Mr. Zhang is a loyal and reliable comrade (同志)."

Due to the character "同" (meaning "same") and the fact that "同性恋" (tóng xìng lián) is the technical term corresponding to "homosexual" in English, Tongzhi has recently become a slang term meaning "gay".

[edit] Southern Africa

In South Africa, comrade is associated with the liberation struggle more generally and the African National Congress in particular. The members of unions affiliated to the ANC through their union federation use the term comrade to refer to each other. Comrade can also be a way of describing someone who is an activist, although it has an association with the ANC and the struggle against apartheid or economic inequality.

In Zimbabwe, the term is only used to people who are affiliated to the ruling part, ZANU (PF) where the state media also use Cde as short for comrade. Members of the opposition mainly the MDC are oftenly referred by their names or Mr, Mrs or Prof. This is despite the fact that the population in general is not happy with it.

[edit] German usage

In modern Germany the term Genosse is usually preferred over Kamerad by those on the political left. This is due to the association of the term with militarism as well as its use by the NSDAP during the Third Reich. Kamerad continues to be used today by those on the German far-right. Kamerad is also used in non-political situations such as within the Bundeswehr, among firemen and in schools for classmates (Klassenkamerad).

[edit] In other languages

* In Albanian, the word shok (from Latin socius) was used within communist circles.

* The Arabic word رفيق (Rafiq) (meaning friend) is used with the same political connotation as "comrade." The term is used both amongst Arab communists as well as within the Ba’ath movement. The term predates modern political usage, and is an Islamic male proper name. Iranian communists also use the exact term.

* The Armenian word for Comrade is ընկեր ("unger") for boys and men, ընկերուհի ("ungerouhi") for girls and women. This word literally translates as "friend". The term is known to be used by members of the Armenian Revolutionary Federation when addressing to other members of the party. The term is also used by the Armenian Communist Party.

* The Bulgarian word for Comrade is "другар" (drugar). It translates as friend or colleague. It can be applied to teachers as well.

* The Croatian term which is equivalent to Comrade is drug, drugar and drugarica for females. In the period between World War II and Tito's death, it was applied to almost everybody: teachers, officials, etc. Today it is not used commonly, but it translates as "friend".

* The Czech word for Comrade is soudruh, although the cognate kamarád is also seen. The latter translates as "friend".

* The Dutch word is kameraad. And although it can be used to refer to communists or an acquaintance, it is used in dialects to appoint someone's friend.

* The Esperanto word for Comrade is "kamarado" in the sense of a friend. The word "samideano", literally "same-thinker" is the equivalent of "Comrade" in the Communist sense.

* The Finnish word is Toveri which literally translates as "buddy".

* The Hungarian word for Comrade is elvtárs. Literally, elvtárs means "policy fellow". The term is used only for Communists - Socialists don't use it.

* The Italian word for Comrade is compagno, meaning "fellow". It is seldom used in its political meaning, as it is seen as derogatory or stereotypical. The word camerata, meaning "roommate", is the fascist equivalent.

* The Japanese word for Comrade is "同志 (dōshi)", the same word used in Chinese. The word is used to refer to like-minded persons and the usage is not necessarily limited by Communists, though the word is to some extent associated with Communism. The word should not be confused with a homonym "同士", which is a more commonly used postfix to show people sharing a certain property.

* In Korean, a good equivalent of the word would be "동무(dongmu)", literally meaning "friend". Although the word was originally used by the Korean people all over the Korean Peninsula, people living south of the 38th Parallel begin avoiding using the word after a communist regime was set up in the north. In North Korea, the word replaced all prior social titles and earned a new meaning as "a fellow man fighting for the revolution". Today, usage of the word "동무" in South Korea could attract suspicious eyes from the public, as it has been stereotyped that only communists would use the word.

* In Poland, the word is towarzysz, which is the same as the Russian word.

* In Portugal, the word is camarada, now being commonly employed to sarcastically refer to communists or supporters of the communist system (result of the overusage of the term in the post-revolutionary society). It is also prxxxxent in the army, and has been gaining popularity among nationalist movements.

* In Romanian the exact translation is camarad which does not bear a political connotation, referring mainly to wartime allies and friends. The term used during the communist era was tovarăş, which is the same as the Russian word.

* The Serbian word for Comrade is drug and is a regular word for 'friend'.

* The Slovak word for Comrade is súdruh. Slovak language also knows a term "kamarát" too, but it is normally translated as a friend.

* In Slovenia comrade is similar to the Russian translation - Tovariš, which incidentally can also mean "teacher".

* In Spain, the word is compañero / compañera ("companion"); the term camarada ("companion", "friend") has also been used, but it's more associated with the communist tradition.

The standard xxxx in Cuba is compañero / compañera, as it was in socialist Nicaragua and Chile. In some parts of Latin America, camarada is the more frequent word, except in Peru, where the term is commonly associated with Shining Path, members of social-democrat party APRA employ compañero to refer to fellow members of the party.

* In Swahili, the equivalent word is ndugu for brother-in-arms, or dada for a female comrade.

* The Swedish word is kamrat. Although it can be associated with communist lingo it may just as well be used to refer to a friend, a co-worker (arbetskamrat) or a classmate in school (klasskamrat or skolkamrat).

* The Tamil word for Comrade is Thozhare (தோழரேwinking smiley and is a regular word for 'friend'.

* The Turkish word Yoldaş (literally co-traveller) has become used within the communist movement. In the climate of harsh anticommunist repression the word largely disappeared from common usage.

* In the United Kingdom, the term "comrade" is still used as a xxxx of address among some Labour Party members, although it is much less common than xxxxerly. Used for headmasters. Wirral Grammar School for Boys

* In the United States, the word "comrade" carries a very strong connotation of being associated with Communism, Marxism-Leninism, and the Soviet Union in general. Especially during the Cold War, to address someone as "comrade" marked either the speaker, person addressed, or both as suspected communist sympathizers. It is still used in its generic context by some American socialists, even strong anti-communists. It latterly is frequently used with humorous intent.

[edit] References

1. ^ "1790, sens polit." - Larousse Dictionnaire d'Étymologie, Paris, 2001.

Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comrade"

Category: Soviet phraseology

同志
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同志一词，中文的基本含义即指志同道合（特别是指在政治方面）的人，这种称谓开始出现于19世纪末，当时的清朝光绪皇帝在筹划戊戌变法的时候，就对变法派的大臣采用了“同志”这一称谓，之后渐渐成为一定范围内对人的称谓，冠在姓氏或人名之后；1989年随香港人林奕华的同性恋电影节——《香港同志电影节》的出现，渐渐 演变为同性恋的代称。
目录
[隐藏]

* 1 普遍性的称谓
* 2 中国政党内部称谓
* 3 现代中国大陆的含义
* 4 同性恋群体的中文代称
* 5 外部联结

[编辑] 普遍性的称谓

* 国际上，社会主义国家内部的社会生活中，“同志”一词为人们彼此之间使 用频率极高的称谓。
o 中国大陆实行改革开放以前的国内政治和日常生活中，“同志”为人 们最常用的的称谓，甚至外国人进入中国大陆也使用这一称谓，但对犯罪服刑人员 不适用；改革开放以后渐渐少用，但年龄层次较高的人对他人多仍旧使用“同志”这 一称谓。
* 国际政治中，社会主义国家之间、信仰共产主义或马列主义的政党之间的 交往，彼此人们常称呼“同志”，但使用这一称呼多也反映国家或政党之间的政治立 场相同或基本一致。
o 中华人民共和国成立初期，中国共产党对社会主义国家之间的执政党都称为“同志”。后来随着社会主义阵营内部矛盾冲突，“同志”一词被非常谨慎地使用。如中国和苏联的矛盾在1959年公开之前，双方依然互称同志，之后虽然双方主要领导人都没有变更，但也不再以同志相称。对于资本主义国家，中国共产党及其政府不使用“同志”称呼，但极为特殊的情况下与这些国家信仰马列主义的政党交 往时，使用“同志”称谓。

[编辑] 中国政党内部称谓

在同盟会以及以之为基础而创立的国民党内，“同志”一词的使用已经比较普遍。但是“同志”在国民党内使用的时候，更像是一个名词而非称谓；在使用称谓时，依然采用“先生”、“女士”、“小姐”等，例“张先生是我们忠实可靠的同志”。中国共产党内部的普遍称呼，如“党内同志”、张同志、恩来同志、毛泽东同志等等。

[编辑] 现代中国大陆的含义

中国共产党成立之后，党内大量地采用“同志”这一称呼，之后渐渐称谓习惯称谓，在其所建立的军队、统治区（解放区）内广泛使用。如毛泽东在其《为人民服务》的文章中即有“...张思德同志是为人民的利益而死的，他的死是比泰山还要重的...”。1949年随着共产党政权在中国大陆的建立，“同志”一词还涵盖到所有支持、拥护中国共产党政权的人们。1954年民族工商业社会主义改造完成之后，“同志”一词在中国大陆地区普及到社会各个层面，成为对所有成年人的称呼，完也代替了“先生”和“女士”或者“小姐”的称谓。按照当时的政治理论，中华人民共和国成立之后，尤其是民族工商业社会主义改造完成之后，全体社会成员（除了极少数的 敌特分子之外）都是在为社会主义革命而工作，自然就彼此都是同志。

政治斗争中，失败的一方可能会面临着失去“同志”资格的危险，如1981年6月27日关于建国以来党的若干历史问题的决议通过以前，刘少奇、彭德怀等重要人物在文化大革命以后直至平反以前一直没有被称为同志。中华人民共和国建国以前，由于中共党内的路线斗争和其他政治斗争问题，在十一届三中全会以前很少被称为同志，如瞿秋白、李立三等。改革开放以后发生了变化，在历次的党内斗争中，失利的一方即使被认为犯了错误，哪怕是严重的错误，通常可以保留党籍，尽管很少再有机会出现在官方文件中，但官方依然会称他们为“同志”；但如果胜利的一方认为对方的性质比犯错误更严重，如反革命，则被开除党籍，之后也不会再被称之为 “同志”。

改革开放之后，“同志”一词在社会上的使用面开始缩减，一般人相互称呼不再使用这一政治意义非常浓厚的词汇了，而是更多地使用“先生”、“女士”、“小姐”或者更显人情味的“师傅”等等。但在政党内、政府机构和军队内部的正式会议和文件中，人们依然会按照以往的方式来使用“同志”这一称谓。除了常见的“先生”、“女士”、 “小姐”称谓以外，在各个时期对被认为有身份的对象，特别是商界、娱乐场合，下 列称谓出现的几率很高：

* 1980年代，干部、领导，常作为直接称谓，不冠以姓氏和名字；
* 1990年代，领导，常作为直接称谓，不冠以姓氏和名字；间或“老总”；
* 2000年代，老总，常作为直接称谓，不冠以姓氏和名字；知悉姓氏之后， 被称为“x总”，如“李总”“王总”等。有时对年龄较轻的女性直称“靓姐”，对年龄较 轻的男性直称“帅哥”。

[编辑] 同性恋群体的中文代称

1989年，香港人林奕华将自己筹划的首届同性恋电影节命名为《香港同志电影节》，这可能是这层意义的开端。（最晚是）从此开始，在中国大陆之外的中文地区，如台湾、香港、新加坡、马来西亚等，“同志”一词逐渐演变成对同性恋者的另一个称呼，女同志指女同性恋，男同志指男同性恋。用的时候并不是如“某某同志”这样作称谓用，而是“某某是一个同志”、“某某参加了一个同志团体”这样。这种用法起先在同性恋群体中使用，后来影响逐渐扩大，上述地区的社会各界都采纳了这个用法，例如台北市政府民政局就在《认识同志手册2001年版》中写道：“市长爱同志”。

林奕华本人曾表示：自己希望用来取代同性恋的同志一词，是由孙中山名言“革命尚未成功，同志仍须努力”联想而来。林一方希望指出仍然需要继续努力，另一方面则希望将讨论的焦点从性取向转移到性别议题。此后许多关注各种不同性别议题的人士都希望能用同志一词联结、包含、代表更多人，目前同志一词不仅限于同性恋者，已扩大到国际上通称的LGBT四大族群，也就是男同性恋者（Gay）、女同性恋者（Lesbian）、双性恋者（Bisexuality）与跨性别者（Transgender），例如 2004年台湾出版的小说彩虹阴阳蝶，副标题就是“跨性别同志的心路历程”。并且在 这层意义之后出现如“直同志”这个词汇。

在中国大陆，自1990年代以后由于绝大多数年轻人对他人渐渐不再使用“同志”称 谓，“同志”作为对“同性恋”群体的代称越来越多的人知晓和使用。

[编辑] 外部联结

* 林奕华 EDWARD LAM: 香港同志电影节
* 台北同志一周: 林奕华谈同志

来自“http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%90%8C%E5%BF%97”

2个分类: 称谓 | LGBT